The Homeland of Kraak Ware: Production and Global Circulation of

Geographic Connections

Zhangzhou (Fujian), Longxi, Haicheng (Yuegang/Moon Port), Pinghe, Nansheng, Wuzhai, Hua’an, Zhangpu, Manila, Batavia (Jakarta), Amsterdam.

I. The Opening of Yuegang: The Starting Point of Zhangzhou’s Globalization

A historic turning point in the Ming Dynasty’s “Sea Ban” policy occurred in the first year of Longqing (1567). With the establishment of Haicheng County and the formal opening of Yuegang (Moon Port), Zhangzhou became the epicenter of China’s Age of Discovery. By the first year of Wanli (1573), with the legalization of foreign trade at Yuegang, Zhangzhou Kiln ceramics began to replace Jingdezhen wares, which were limited by inland logistics, becoming the new darling of the global market.

According to the External Economic and Trade Chronicle of Zhangzhou, ship tax revenue at Yuegang rose from approximately 3,000 taels of silver annually during its early days to tens of thousands of taels by the late Wanli period. Behind these figures lay millions of ceramic pieces from Nansheng and Wuzhai in Pinghe, loaded onto deep-draft treasure ships. At the time, as many as 30 to 40 merchant ships sailed from Yuegang to Manila each year, with ceramics constituting the lion’s share of the cargo.

II. Pinghe Kilns: Secret Mountain Production of Kraak Ware

For a long time, Western collectors referred to this thin-bodied blue-and-white porcelain with panelled decorations as “Kraak Ware,” mistakenly believing it originated in Jingdezhen. However, modern archaeology has confirmed that the core production area was actually Pinghe County in Zhangzhou.

1. Administrative Reorganization and Industrial Clustering

Pinghe County was established in the 13th year of Zhengde (1518), initially to manage migrants in the mountainous regions. But by the 2nd year of Wanli (1574), driven by surging overseas demand, the Nansheng and Wuzhai areas of Pinghe—rich in high-quality porcelain clay and possessing convenient water transport via the West River of the Jiulong River to Yuegang—quickly transformed into specialized export ceramic hubs.

2. Kiln Density and Production Scale

Modern archaeological surveys have identified over 80 kiln sites from the Ming and Qing dynasties within Pinghe County, with the clusters in Nansheng and Wuzhai being the most representative. During several rescue excavations between 1994 and 1997, a vast quantity of ceramic shards was unearthed that perfectly matched those found in Southeast Asian and European shipwrecks (such as the Wanli and San Diego). During the peak Wanli period, the annual output of these kilns was estimated in the millions of pieces, creating a landscape where “every mountain had fire, and every village emitted smoke”.

III. Characteristics of Kraak Ware: An Aesthetic Resonance Between East and

West

Zhangzhou Kiln products (especially from Pinghe) were not just industrial goods; they were the crystallization of globalized aesthetics in the 17th century.

1. The Geometric Logic of “Panels”

The most prominent feature of Zhangzhou export ceramics is the “Panelled decoration” (Kaiguang) design on the edges of plates and bowls. Around the 20th year of Wanli (1592), this style—dividing the rim into 6 to 10 fan-shaped or diamond-shaped panels containing auspicious patterns—became standardized. This compartmentalized composition was heavily influenced by Islamic art and European Baroque aesthetics, reflecting the precise insight of Chinese craftsmen into overseas markets.

2. Localization of Clay and Glaze

Compared to the refined Jingdezhen porcelain, Zhangzhou wares exhibit “gritty bottoms” (shadi), where kiln sand often adheres to the base. This resulted from a rapid, large-scale firing process where sand was used to prevent stacked vessels from sticking together. In terms of color, besides the classic blue-and-white, Zhangzhou “Sancai” and polychrome (“Wucai”) ceramics began to be exported in large quantities after the 30th year of Wanli (1602). Their bold reds, greens, and yellows were highly prized by Japanese merchants, who dubbed them “Gosu Akae”.

IV. Global Circulation: From Yuegang to the VOC Ledgers

The circulation routes of Zhangzhou export ceramics outlined the contours of early global trade.

1. The Manila Galleon Route

In the 8th year of Wanli (1580), Spain utilized the Manila Galleon trade to transport Zhangzhou ceramics across the Pacific to Mexico and onward to Europe. During this period, merchant ships departing from Yuegang typically had a tonnage between 100 and 300 tons, with each ship capable of carrying tens of thousands of ceramic pieces.

2. Dutch “Ceramic Plunder” and Market Monopoly

In 1602 (the 30th year of Wanli), the Dutch East India Company (VOC) captured the Portuguese ship Sao Tiago, followed by the Santa Catarina the next year. The capture of over 100,000 pieces of Chinese porcelain, auctioned in Amsterdam, shocked Europe. Because the Dutch referred to these ships as “Kraaks,” the ceramics from Pinghe, Zhangzhou, became known globally as “Kraak Ware.” According to VOC records, in the 42nd year of Wanli (1614) alone, the Dutch transshipped over 200,000 pieces of Zhangzhou Kiln ceramics in Batavia.

V. Twilight of History: Social Change and Industrial Transition

The prosperity of the ceramic trade profoundly altered Zhangzhou’s social fabric. The 15th year of Wanli (1587) prefecture records note that due to wealth from foreign trade, local customs became “luxurious,” significantly challenging traditional Confucian frugality.

A large portion of the population shifted from traditional farming to handicrafts and commerce. Analysis in the Zhangzhou Population Chronicle suggests that Zhangzhou’s population reached a historical peak of approximately 1.1 million during the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, largely due to the employment opportunities provided by the Yuegang economic circle. However, following the death of the Wanli Emperor in 1620 and the subsequent political turmoil, coupled with the long conflict between the Zheng Chenggong’s forces and the Qing court, Yuegang declined, and the golden age of Zhangzhou Kiln came to an end during the Chongzhen period.

Conclusion

Zhangzhou Kiln Kraak Ware is not only material evidence of the Ming Dynasty “Maritime Silk Road” trade but also one of China’s earliest industrial attempts to integrate with global aesthetics and capital. From the dragon kilns in the mountains of Pinghe to the aristocratic tables in Amsterdam, these ceramic shards do more than record trade data from 450 years ago; they carry the seafaring soul of Zhangzhou people who dared to venture across the great oceans.